URHAM, N.C. — It
comes along only once every decade or so, typically arriving without
much fanfare. But soon it is everywhere: dominating conferences,
echoing in lecture halls, flooding scholarly journals. Every
graduate student dreams of being the one to think it up: the Next
Big Idea.
In the 1960's it was Claude Lévi-Strauss and structuralism. In
the 1970's and 1980's it was Jacques Derrida and deconstruction,
Michel Foucault and poststructuralism and Jacques Lacan and
psychoanalysis, followed by various theorists of postcolonialism and
New Historicism.
And now scholars are wondering if the latest contender for
academia's next master theorist is Michael Hardt, a self-effacing,
41-year-old associate professor of literature at Duke University and
the co-author of "Empire," a heady treatise on globalization that is
sending frissons of excitement through campuses from São Paulo to
Tokyo.
Since Harvard University Press published the book in March last
year, translation rights have been sold in 10 countries, including
Japan and Croatia; the leading Brazilian newspaper has put it on the
cover of its Sunday magazine; and Dutch television has broadcast a
documentary about it. Fredric Jameson, America's leading Marxist
literary critic, has called it "the first great new theoretical
synthesis of the new millennium," while the equally eminent
Slovenian political philosopher Slavoj Zizek has declared it
"nothing less than a rewriting of the `The Communist Manifesto' for
our time."
During the same period, Mr. Hardt has given 21 academic talks and
received tenure from Duke (a year early). And the compliments keep
coming.
"He's definitely hot," said Xudong Zhang, a professor of
comparative literature and East Asian Studies at New York
University, who taught a graduate seminar on "Empire" for the second
time this spring. Masao Miyoshi, a professor of literature at the
University of California at San Diego, said, "He's one of the very
few younger people who will have an impact."
There is no question that Mr. Hardt is unusually talented. But
talent alone does not provoke scholarly commotion. Other factors
must also be at work. For one thing, the topic must be in vogue; and
globalization happens to be the trendy subject right now.
Then there is the allure of Mr. Hardt's flamboyant co-author,
Antonio Negri, a 68- year-old Italian philosopher and suspected
terrorist mastermind who is serving a 13- year prison sentence in
Rome for inciting violence during the turbulent 1970's.
In large part, however, the fuss over Mr. Hardt and "Empire" is
about something else: the need in fields like English, history and
philosophy for a major new theory. "Literary theory has been dead
for 10 years," said Stanley Aronowitz, a sociologist at the Graduate
Center of the City University of New York. "The most important point
about `Empire' is that Michael is addressing the crisis in the
humanities, which has reached the point where banality seems to
pervade the sphere."
Indeed, by the end of the 1990's, the sweeping approaches of the
previous decades had been exhausted. Yet no powerful new idea
emerged to take their place. A deep pessimism crept over the
humanities. Today, scholars complain, their fields are fragmented
and rudderless.
So just what does a disquisition on globalization have to offer
scholars in crisis?
First, there is the book's broad sweep and range of learning.
Spanning nearly 500 pages of densely argued history, philosophy and
political theory, it features sections on imperial Rome, Haitian
slave revolts, the American Constitution and the Persian Gulf war,
and references to dozens of thinkers like Machiavelli, Spinoza,
Hegel, Hobbes, Kant, Marx and Foucault. In short, the book has the
formal trappings of a master theory in the old European
tradition.
Then there is the theory itself. Globalization isn't simply the
latest phase in the history of imperialism and nation-states, the
authors declare. It's something radically new. Where other scholars
and the media depict countries vying for control of world markets,
Mr. Hardt and Mr. Negri instead discern a new political system and a
new form of power taking root. They call it Empire.
Unlike historical empires, however, this one has no emperor, no
geographic capital and no single seat of power. In fact, given the
authors' abstruse formulation, it's almost easier to say what Empire
isn't than what it is: a fluid, infinitely expanding and highly
organized system that encompasses the world's entire population.
It's a system that no one person, corporation or country can
control. (It's also apparently still under construction. One
hallmark of Empire is "supranational organisms," few of which seem
to exist yet. The authors regard the United Nations, for example, as
a precursor of a "real supranational center.")
More surprising still, Empire is good news: it's potentially the
most democratic political system to hit the face of the earth. As
Mr. Hardt puts it, "The thing we call Empire is actually an enormous
historical improvement over the international system and
imperialism." The reason? Because power under Empire is widely
dispersed, so presumably just about anyone could affect its
course.
"Empire creates a greater potential for revolution than did the
modern regimes of power," the authors write, "because it presents
us, alongside the machine of command, with an alternative: the set
of all the exploited and the subjugated, a multitude that is
directly opposed to Empire, with no mediation between them."
The book is full of such bravura passages. Whether presenting new
concepts — like Empire and the multitude — or urging revolution, it
brims with confidence in its ideas. Does it have the staying power
and broad appeal necessary to become the next master theory? It is
too soon to say. But for the moment, "Empire" is filling a void in
the humanities.
For literary scholars it is evidence that the work they do is
politically important. They are not simply analyzing Milton's
religious convictions or parsing "Finnegans Wake," they argue, but
shedding light on the way the world really works. Consider
deconstruction; it revolutionized scholars' understanding of
language. Lacanian psychoanalysis did the same for the human psyche.
In a similar way, "Empire" lays out a new way of thinking about
global politics. When it comes to understanding current events, the
book insists, even literary scholars have something important to
contribute. And at a moment of disciplinary crisis, that's a message
that's bound to appeal.
Michèle Lamont, a sociologist at Princeton University, argued as
much in a famous article titled "How to Become a Dominant French
Philosopher: The Case of Jacques
Derrida," which appeared in The American Journal of Sociology in
1987. She concluded that Mr. Derrida's popularity had less to do
with the intrinsic value of his ideas than with his "sophisticated
writing style," "distinctive theoretical framework" and lucky
timing. Deconstruction, she wrote, "was an answer to a disciplinary
crisis." His famously stylish clothes and his thick French accent
didn't hurt either.
Of course, Mr. Hardt can't trade on credentials like those. Not
that long ago he even had trouble finding a job. With a Ph.D. in
comparative literature from the University of Washington at Seattle,
he lacked both an Ivy League diploma and the kind of narrow
specialization that many academic departments look for these
days.
"I applied to French, Italian, English, political science and
philosophy departments," he recalled recently over lunch at an
Italian restaurant near the Duke campus. "But the reality of it is
that almost no one would hire me."
With his soft voice, denim jacket and unruly dark hair, Mr. Hardt
looks and sounds more like an idealistic graduate student than a
rapidly rising star scholar. When he did land a job in the Italian
department at the University of Southern California in 1993, he
said, he found himself at odds with colleagues in his field.
"I went to a conference on Marx and deconstruction," he recalled.
"I listened to a series of papers that were so convoluted and
abstract. The speakers said they were talking about politics, but I
couldn't understand a thing political about them. I was so
frustrated after the weekend that on the Monday after, I called the
state prison commission and found out how I could volunteer teaching
at the local prison."
By this time he was already collaborating with Mr. Negri.
Inspired by the Italian philosopher's writings and political
activism, Mr. Hardt had asked a friend to introduce them during a
visit to Paris, where Mr. Negri had fled to avoid serving his jail
sentence. (In 1997, he returned to Rome — and went directly to
prison.) They began collaborating on "Empire" in 1994.
From a professional standpoint, it was a risky move. Though Mr.
Hardt had published a book of his own (on the French philosopher
Gilles Deleuze), he had no obvious area of specialization. Moreover,
interest in contemporary Italian philosophy was small in the United
States.
For Mr. Hardt, the risks obviously paid off. Of course, his book
has skeptics. Some say nation-states are as strong as ever; that the
book fails to back up its theory with facts; that it's hobbled by
Marxist ideology.
"The argument that the world exhibits a completely different
power structure is at least grossly hyperbolic and more probably
merely false," said John Gray, a professor of European thought at
the London School of Economics, who has published his own critique
of globalization, "False Dawn" (New Press, 1999). " `Empire'
theorizes the current state of the world in a way which produces
romantically alluring phrases that gloss over the actual conflicts,
discontinuities, uncertainties and sheer unknowability of the world
and its power relations today."
Such criticisms don't seem to bother Mr. Hardt. He says he is
pleased that the book has found an audience outside what he calls
"our small fanatical readership." He has few illusions that he is
the next Derrida.
"I'm sure I'm not," he said. "Toni and I don't think of this as a
very original book. We're putting together a variety of things that
others have said. That's why it's been so well received. It's what
people have been thinking but not really articulated."
And he readily concedes that "Empire" has flaws. Mr. Zizek
complained that for a book that preaches revolution, it had an
unforgivable omission: no how-to manual. Mr. Hardt agreed:
"I wrote him an e-mail and said, `Yes, it's true we don't know
what the revolution should be.' And he wrote back saying, `Yeah,
well, I don't know either.' "